Neolithic cultures develop in the Yellow River Valley.
|c. 2200 - 1800BC The first Chinese dynasty, the Xia, is founded by Yu the Great.
|[L2 801]c. 1800 - 800BC THE BRONZE AGE (the Shang and the Early Zhou Dynasties)
|c. 1700BC China's first walls appear. These were the `hangtu' or earthen walls in which earth was filled into the space between planks and then tightly pounded. The 4.3-mile wall of Erligang in Henan, which is the best example of this method, could date from this period.
|[M 010][L2 901]c. 1122 - 221BC THE ZHOU DYNASTY:
The Western Zhou rules until about 770BC, after which the Eastern Zhou take over. Walls are first mentioned in the ninth century BC.
|c. Fifth-third THE IRON AGE
|centuries BC
|c. 435BC Construction of the Great Wall of China begins during the Warring States period which starts in 435 BC. The Zhou king falls and China is carved up. Warring [G 17 / principalities] begin constructing [L2 202]defence walls against each other.
The Great Wall of China is first constructed under the Qin Dynasty and is part of sweeping changes made in China. This includes the first unified state and a new border system. The legend of the Great Wall of China begins.
|[L2 204]c. 221BC The nomads threaten the Chinese, who are no match for the former's mobility and speed. Attempts to diminish the nomads' power by incorporating them into the Chinese nation do not work.
|[L2 903][P 010]c. 202BC - AD220 THE HAN DYNASTY:
The Han and the Ming are China's greatest wall builders. The [M 004][N 001]Han Great Wall stretches 6,200 miles from Dunhuang in Gansu Province, west to Xinjiang.
|[L2 805]c. AD220 - 581 THE WEI, JIN, NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN DYNASTIES:
China is divided when the Han Dynasty falls. The Western Jin Dynasty from AD265 - 313 manages a brief period of unification.
|[L2 806]c. AD581 - 618 THE SUI DYNASTY:
China is united for two centuries under the Sui. Rebellion flares at the beginning of AD615 and the Sui are unable to quell the unrest. The dynasty falls three years later.
|[L2 904]c. AD618 - 907 THE TANG DYNASTY:
By this time, China is among the most powerful empires in the world. The use of walls as barriers ends with the Tang Dynasty.
|[L2 808] c. AD907 - 959 Five dynasties rule China in the north. The south is ruled by 10 different kingdoms.
|[L2 905]c. AD960 - 1279 THE SONG DYNASTY:
The Song build no walls because as a dynasty they are too weak. Ironically, it is the [G 14 / nomadic] tribes - the Liao and the Jin - who begin wall building in this period, either against the Song, against each other, or against the [G 12 / Mongols].
|[L2 810]c. 1276 - 1368 THE YUAN DYNASTY:
China comes under foreign rule for the first time when Genghis Khan's descendents breach the Great Wall and take over. The Mongol army is a relatively small one - 250,000 strong - which makes the defeat more humiliating.
Muslims and Europeans arrive in China, as do Western concepts and ideas.
|[M 002][L2 906]c. 1368 - 1644 THE MING DYNASTY:
The Ming are the most active of all wall builders. The parts of the Great Wall as we know it today are built in the late 16th century. The Ming build walls in three stages: the first period is from 1368 - 1449, the second until the end of the 15th century, and the third from about 1540 onwards. Each period has its characteristic defence system.
|c. 1466 The Chinese signalling system is improved. Regulations introduce cannon fire; the number of shots depends on the strength of the enemy.
|[L2 907]c. 1500s While the Ming court weakens, the nomads under Batu Mongke reorganize in the north.
|[L2 215]c. 1500 - 1570 Ming rule becomes increasingly weak and incompetent. Military campaigns fail and conflict with the Mongols, who are now a unified and powerful force, intensifies as the Chinese continue refusing trading rights.
|1537 - 1540 The Vietnam Campaign highlights Chinese foreign policy difficulties. The Chinese have to decide whether or not to attack those who had overthrown Ming-approved leaders in Vietnam.
|[M 001]1547 A proposal is made to drive the nomads from the [G 15 / Ordos] and build a defence line along the Yellow River Loop. Rival factions at court argue over the wisdom of this proposal. Some feel that the Chinese should continue to defend themselves against the nomads, but not directly attack them. The proposal is abandonned.
At the same time, the Mongols present no less of a threat and the Ming fail to make decisions about how to contain them at a time when a decision is most needed.
|[L2 216]1571 The Ming Dynasty and the [G 12 / Mongols] formally make peace.
|1644 The Ming still build walls as the dynasty collapses.
[M 002]Although the Ming defence lines are often considered brilliant, it is also generally acknowledged that they overlooked a vital consideration - the ability of the nomads to find ways around them.
|[L2 908][M005]1644 - 1912 THE QING DYNASTY:
The Qing Dynasty is established when the Manchus ride into Beijing and force the last Ming emperor to commit suicide.
|[L2 218]1839 - 1842 THE FIRST OPIUM WAR:
The Chinese, in attempting to destroy England's illegal opium trade, spark off a war which results in opening five Chinese ports to British trade. Hong Kong is ceded to the British.
|[L2 219]1848 - 1864 THE TAIPING REVOLT:
Hakka ethnic ambitions expand into politics through the Taiping tianguo society and an anti-Manchu sentiment gains ground. The Taiping's campaign against the Manchus in an attempt to establish their heavenly kingdom.
|1857 - 1860 THE SECOND OPIUM WAR:
After China's defeat, further concessions are made to foreigners, who, in addition to now having 43 ports open to them, are allowed to roam freely throughout the vast country.
|1883 - 1900 Foreign influence increases in China. Battles are fought with the French and the Japanese. China is divided into spheres of influence with the Russians to the north, the Germans in [M 004]Shandong, the British in the Yangtze valley and the French in the southwest.
|1894 - 1895 The first Sino-Japanese War is fought over Korea.
|1900 The peasants of Northern China revolt against the Manchus and against foreign influence in the [G 04 / Boxer] Rebellion. The Wall is damaged during the rebellion and part of the Zhenhaiguan tower near the ocean is destroyed.
|1911 The 1911 Revolution is the last of a series of anti-dynastic revolts. It is sparked by the government's nationalization of railways plan in the Yangtze provinces.
[I 009]A provisional government is set up under Sun Yat-sen and the military commander, Li Yuanhong.
|1912 - 1949 THE REPUBLICAN PERIOD
|1912 The last Qing emperor abdicates and China becomes a republic.
|1919 The May Fourth Movement is established with the aim of modernizing and strengthening the Chinese nation. [G 02 / Anarchism] and [G 21 / socialism] come to the fore.
|[M 005]1922 The wall at Shanhaiguan is damaged in fighting during the Warlord Period. Further damage occurs two years later in 1924 following a dispute between two warlords.
|[M 013&M016]Mid - 1930s Communist forces abandon Soviet areas south of the Yangtze and traverse China in the [G 10 / Long March] to escape the onslaught of Nationalist forces.
[I 007]Mao Zedong emerges as a senior Communist leader.
|[M 011&M012]1937 - 1945 The Sino-Japanese War breaks out after the Marco Polo Bridge incident where members of the Japanese army move into Chinese territory unauthorized in search of a fellow soldier who goes missing on maneuvers. At the same time the Sino-Japanese conflict increases tension between the Communists and Nationalists in China; the [M 014]Nationalists emerge from the war weakened while the Communists are strengthened.
|[M 015]1949 October The People's Republic of China is founded when the Communist Red Army defeats the Nationalists in China's civil war. [I 010]Chiang Kai-shek and his followers flee to Taiwan where they form a [G 20 / republican] state.
|[L2 909]1952 The Great Wall is declared China's number one repair project. The Wall is used to fill gaps in national symbolism.
|1958 The [G 08 / Great Leap Forward], a plan to increase agricultural and industrial production through decentralization, is a disastrous failure.
|1965 The Cultural Revolution wreaks havoc on China's cultural heritage. Hundreds of miles of the Great Wall fall victim. The stone is used for building roads, reservoirs and other construction. Peasants also use the stone to build houses or livestock shelters.
|1976 September 9 Mao Zedong dies and a struggle for power follows with Hua Guofeng, the Gang of Four, and Deng Xiaoping.
|[I 008]1978 Deng Xiaoping is rehabilitated and eventually establishes his authority as China's paramount leader. He commits China to economic reform.
|1984 The 35th anniversary celebrations of the founding of the People's Republic take place with the Wall playing a major role. This includes it being used as a backdrop for 100 dancers at dawn. A campaign is proposed to raise funds for further restoration of the Wall. Sections to be restored are [M 005][P 016&P 017]Mutianyu and Shanhaiguan (to cope with growing demands of tourism).
|1985 The government starts an overall repair campaign - `Love China Repair Her Great Wall.'
In a virtual Cult of the Wall, renovation has become synonymous with rebuilding China. Visits are virtually obligatory by foreign dignitaries.
|1989 Students demonstrating for democracy in Tiananmen Square are violently put down by the People's Army, bringing international condemnation on China.
